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References

Gariepy T., Kuhlmann U., Gillott C. and Erlandson M. (2008). A large-scale comparison of conventional and molecular methods for the evaluation of host-parasitoid associations in non-target risk-assessment studies. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 708-715
Host rearing and dissection are used to define the ecological host range of candidate biological control agents and assess host-specificity of parasitoids, however, molecular methods may also be useful, e.g. Lygus plant bugs, host rearing, dissection and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis were compared for estimation of parasitism levels and parasitoid species composition in field-collected target and non-target Miridae. Parasitism levels estimated by conventional and molecular methods were similar but molecular analysis could detect parasitoids earlier than dissection and rearing. Molecular methods can provide more complete, parasitoid species composition information because the results are not confounded by the host and parasitoid mortality encountered in rearing. However, detection of a parasitoid in a host does not necessarily indicate survival to the adult stage. Beyond agent identification, molecular diagnostics can facilitate and expedite pre- and post-release studies on the ecological host range of parasitoids, potential non-target effects, host-parasitoid associations and trophic interactions.

Gassman A. and Louda S.M. (2001). Rhinocyllus conicus: initial evaluation and subsequent ecological impacts in North America. Pp. 147-183 In: Evaluating indirect ecological effects of biological control, E. Wajnberg, J.K. Scott and P.C. Quimby (Ed.) CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxon., UK.

Gassmann A. and Schroeder D. (1995). The search for effective biological control agents in Europe: History and lessons from leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) and cypress spurge (E. cyperissias L.). Biological Control 5: 466-472

Gassmann A., Tosevski I. and Skinner L. (2008). Use of native range surveys to determine the potential host range of arthropod herbivores for biological control of two related weed species, Rhamnus cathartica and Frangula alnus. Biological Control 45: 11-20
The buckthorn species, Rhamnus cathartica and Frangula alnus have become invasive in North America. The key question for biocontrol of teghse species was whether they are distantly enough related that they would not share the same arthropod complex in Europe, and, if so, which arthropod species would be less likely to use native North American buckthorns as hosts. Sampling in Europe indicated that the arthropod-species richness is higher on R. cathartica than on F. alnus and includes more species that are presumed to be host-specific at the species or genus level. At least 12 arthropod species were found exclusively on Rhamnus, some of which may be specific to R. cathartica and only one species was found exclusively on F. alnus.

Gerard P.J., McNeill M.R., Barratt B.I.P. and Whiteman S.A. (2006). Rationale for release of the irish strain of Microctonus aethiopoides for biocontrol of clover root weevil. New Zealand Plant Protection 59: 285-289.

Gerber E., Hinz H.L., Blossey B. and Bacher S. (2004). Two shoot miners as potential biological control agents for garlic mustard: should both be released? Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds: 108-112
Two shoot-mining weevils, Ceutorhynchus alliariae and C. roberti, both potential biological control agents for Alliaria petiolata in North America, show high temporal and spatial niche overlap. The comparison of attack levels as an indirect estimate of their potential to damage garlic mustard showed that C. alliariae was equally as effective in attacking garlic mustard alone as in combination with C. roberti, infact under experimental conditions, C. alliariae alone reached higher infestation levels than the mixed species but did not result in a higher impact on garlic mustard. Replicated releases of different combinations of the two species would provide a unique opportunity to test the conclusions from our pre-release investigations.

Gilbert G.S. and Webb C.O. (2007). Phylogenetic signal in plant pathogen-host range. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104: 4979-4983
Susceptibility of plant species plant pathogens is poorly understood. Most fungal pathogens are usually polyphagous but most plant species in a local community are resistant to any given pathogen. The probablility that a pathogen can infect two plant species decreases continuously with phylogenetic distance between the plants. This allows prediction of the likely host range of plant pathogens in a local community. The results suggest that the rate of spread and ecological impacts of a disease through a natural plant community depends on the phylogenetic structure of the community itself and that current regulatory approaches strongly underestimate the local risks of global movement of plant pathogens or their hosts.

Gilbert L.E. and Morrison L.W. (1997). Patterns of host specificity in Pseudacteon parasitoid flies (Diptera: Phoridae) that attack Solenopsis fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Environmental Entomology 26: 1149-1154.
Pseudacteon spp. that parasitize Solenopsis invicta in South America are not present in the introduced range of this pest species in the USA. Sequential host specificity tests were conducted with 4 South American Pseudacteon species to investigate the degree to which these species attack the native North American S. geminata. Three species showed little interest in ovipositing on S. geminata, but P. curvatus oviposited on S. geminata readily, but there was no larval development. Methods for assaying host specificity and the biocontrol potential of these insects are discussed.

Godfray H.C.J. (1994). Parasitoids: Behavioural and Evolutionary Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton. 473 pp.

Goldson S.L. and Phillips C.B. (1990). Biological control in pasture and lucerne and the requirements for futher responsible introduction of entomophagous insects. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of New Zealand 10: 63-74.

Goldson S.L., Barratt B.I.P., Barlow N.D. and Phillips C.B. (1998). What is a safe biological control agent? Pp. 530-538 In: Pest Management - Future Challenges: Proceedings of the 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, M. Zalucki, R. Drew and G. White (Ed.) The Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Pest Management.

Goldson S.L., Frampton E.R. and Ridley G.S. (2010.). The effects of legislation and policy in New Zealand and Australia on biosecurity and arthropod biological control research and development. Biological Control 52: 241-244.
The authors highlight some of the differences between legislation, policy and what science can deliver relating to biological control and biosecurity in New Zealand and Australia. They also discuss some of the inconsistencies and impracticalities in their implementation with a focus on examples from arthropod biological control.

Goldson S.L., McNeill M.R. and Proffitt J.R. (2003). Negative effects of strain hybridisation on the biocontrol agent Microctonus aethiopoides. New Zealand Plant Protection 57: 138-142.

Goldson S.L., McNeill M.R., Phillips C.B. and Proffitt J.R. (1992). Host specificity testing and suitability of the parasitoid Microctonus hyperodae (Hym.: Braconidae, Euphorinae) as a biological control agent of Listronotus bonariensis (Col.: Curculionidae) in New Zealand. Entomophaga 37: 483-498.
Microctonus hyperodae was imported from South America as a potential biological control agent of the adult stage of the pest weevil Listronotus bonariensis. Four non-target weevils were found to sustain some M. hyperodae development but in all but Irenimus aequalis, parasitoid development was impeded, with up to 50% of the larvae becoming encapsulated. I. aequalis was not considered to be threatened by M. hyperodae as this weevil is now recognised as a minor pest. In view of its relatively oligophagous behaviour, the parasitoid was recommended as suitable for release.

Goldson S.L., McNeill M.R., Proffitt J.R. and Barratt B.I.P. (2005). Host specificity testing and suitability of a European biotype of the braconid parasitoid Microctonus aethiopoides Loan as a biological control agent against Sitona lepidus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in New Zealand. Biocontrol Science and Technology 15: 791-813.
The paper described host specificity testing for European biotypes of Microctonus aethiopoides Loan. Choice and no-choice tests were carried out. European M. aethiopoides was able to develop in the native weevils Irenimus aequalis, Nicaeana cervina, Catoptes cuspidatus, Protolobus porculus and Steriphus variabilis with parasitism rates of 13, 28, 2, 7 and 8%, respectively. These levels were significantly less than those in the corresponding S. lepidus control. It was concluded that the ecological impact of the European biotype is likely to be less severe than those already exhibited by the Moroccan M. aethiopoides.

Goldson S.L., McNeill M.R., Proffitt J.R., Barker G.M., Addison P.J., Barratt B.I.P. and Ferguson C.M. (1993). Systematic mass rearing and release of Microctonus hyperodae (Hym.: Braconidae, Euphorinae), a parasitoid of the Argentine stem weevil Listronotus bonariensis (Col.: Curculionidae) and records of its establishment in New Zealand. Entomophaga 38: 1-10.

Goldson S.L., Phillips C.B., McNeill M.R. and Barlow N.D. (1997). The potential of parasitoid strains in biological control: observations to date on Microctonus spp. intraspecific variation in New Zealand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 64: 115-124.

Goldson S.L., Proffitt J.R. and Baird D.B. (1998). Establishment and phenology of the parasitoid Microctonus hyperodae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in New Zealand. Environmental Entomology 27: 1386-1392.

Goldson S.L., Proffitt J.R. and McNeill M.R. (1990). Seasonal biology and ecology in New Zealand of Microctonus aethiopoides (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of Sitona spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), with special emphasis on atypical behaviour. Journal of Applied Ecology 27: 703-722.

Goldson S.L., Proffitt J.R. and Muscroft-Taylor K.E. (1993). The economic value of achieving biological control of Sitona discoideus. Pp. 45-60 In: Plant Protection: Costs, Benefits and Trade Implications, D.M. Suckling and A.J. Popay (Ed.) New Zealand Plant Protection Society Inc.

Goolsby J.A., Makinson J.R., Hartley D.M., Zonneveld R. and Wright A.D. (2004). Pre-release evaluation and host-range testing of Floracarus perrepae (Eriophyidae) genotypes for biological control of Old World climbing fern. Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds: 113-116
As part of a biological control program for Lygodium microphyllum, an invasive climbing fern in Florida, surveys for natural enemies were conducted in the fern's native range (Australia, Asia and Oceania). Twenty-two herbivores were identified including an eriophyid mite, Floracarus perrepae Knihinicki & Boczek. Using molecular diagnostics a plant population from Cape York, Queensland was found to be an exact match with the invasive populations in Florida for the two chloroplast DNA sequences analyzed. Pre-release field impact studies revealed that F. perrepae caused more than 50% impact on L. microphyllum biomass production over a two-year period. Several genotypes of the mite were screened for their acceptance of the invasive Florida genotype, and the populations from Cape York and Thailand performed best and came from fern genotypes that were most closely related to the Florida genotype.

Goolsby J.A., Van Klinken R.D. and Palmer W.A. (2006). Maximising the contribution of native-range studies towards the identification and prioritisation of weed biocontrol agents. Australian Journal of Entomology 45: 276-286

Gourlay A.H., Wittenberg R., Hill R.L., Spiers A.G. and Fowler S.V. (2000). The biological control programme against Clematis vitalba in New Zealand. Pp. 709-718 In: Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, N. R. Spencer (Ed.) Bozeman, Montana, USA Montana State University.

Grandgirard J., Hoddle M.S., Petit J.N., Percy D.M. and Roderick G.K. (2006). Pre-introductory risk assessment studies of Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) for use as a classical biological control agent against Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in the Society Islands of French Polynesia. Biocontrol Science & Technology 17: 809-822
Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar)( Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) invaded French Polynesia in 1999. A classical biological control program against H. vitripennis was initiated in 2004 aiming to introduce the exotic egg parasitoid Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) to the Society Islands archipelago. The primary risk of H. vitripennis is its potential to vector the lethal plant bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, although its presence in French Polynesia has not yet been demonstrated. Studies assessing the risk of to native cicadellids showed at least 14 cicadellid species were present and the risk to these species from non-taget attack was assessed by examining their phylogenetic relationships to known hosts of G. ashmeadi, their similarity in body size, egg laying biology, and ecology. It was concluded that none of the potential non-taget species were at risk of attack because none are in the tribe Proconiini, all were very small and, appeared to lay tiny single eggs, deposited on the undersides of leaves of trees. These results persuaded the French Polynesian Government that the benefits of establishing G. ashmeadi for H. vitripennis control outweighed the risks. Releases of G. ashmeadi in Tahiti began in May 2005.

Grandgirard J., Hoddle M.S., Petit J.N., Roderick G.K. and Davies N. (2008). Engineering an invasion: classical biological control of the glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis, by the egg parasitoid Gonatocerus ashmeadi in Tahiti and Moorea, French Polynesia. Biological Invasions 10: 135-148
Pre-introductory risk assessment studies of Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) for use as a classical biological control agent against Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in the Society Islands of French Polynesia.

Greathead D.J. (1971). A review of biological control in the Ethiopian region. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control Technical Communication 5: 1-162.

Greathead D.J. (1995). Benefits and risks of classical biological control. Pp. 53-63 In: Biological Control: benefits and Risks, H.M.T. Hokkanen and J. Lynch (Ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Greathead D.J. and Greathead A.H. (1992). Biological control of insect pests by insect parasitoids and predators: the BIOCAT database. Biocontrol News and Information 13: 61N-68N

Gripenberg, S., Hamer, N.I.A., Brereton, T.O.M., Roy, D.B. and Lewis, O.T. (2011). A novel parasitoid and a declining butterfly: cause or coincidence? Ecological Entomology 36: 271-281
The small tortoiseshell butterfly (Aglais urticae L.) declined sharply in the U.K. between 2003 and 2008, coinciding with the arrival and spread of a parasitoid, Sturmia bella Meig. (Diptera: Tachinidae), which specialises on nymphalid butterflies. Data from a large-scale butterfly monitoring scheme, and collections of larvae were to assess parasitoid incidence and parasitism frequency. Similar data were compiled for a related butterfly (Inachis io) which is also parasitised by S. bella but which is not declining. Sturmia bella was present in 26% and 15% of the larval groups of A. urticae and I. io, respectively, and now kills more individuals of A. urticae (but not I. io) than any native parasitoid. Results indicated that S. bella causes host mortality in addition to that caused by native parasitoids and that S. bella may be playing a role in the recent decline of A. urticae. Other potential drivers of trends in the abundance of this butterfly may be present.

Groenteman R., Kelly D., Fowler S.V. and Bourdot G.W. (2008). Factors affecting oviposition rate in the weevil Rhinocyllus conicus on non-target Carduus spp. in New Zealand. Pp. 87-90 In: Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, La Grande Motte, France, 22-27 April, 2007
Rhinocyllus conicus (Froehlich) (Coleoptera: Curculionoidae), oviposits on developing thistle flower buds and larvae feeding on the receptacle prevents seed development. The weevil attacks several thistle species, but prefers nodding thistle, Carduus nutans L. The effects of plant characteristics on oviposition preference and/or the size of emerging adult weevils were examined on three Carduus species. The results showed that larger, higher seed heads on larger plants were preferred for oviposition and larger seed heads supported the development of larger adults. Nodding thistle flowers over an extended period of time but the two winged thistle species offer additional oviposition opportunities three to four weeks before nodding thistle flowers. The adults emerging from the winged thistle species are likely to establish a second generation, enabling this normally univoltine weevil to sustain seasonally prolonged attack on nodding thistle.

Groenteman, R., Fowler, S.V. and Sullivan, J.J. (2011). St. John's wort beetles would not have been introduced to New Zealand now: A retrospective host range test of New Zealand's most successful weed biocontrol agents. Biological Control 57: 50-58
St. John's wort, Hypericum perforatum, was a serious weed in New Zealand (NZ) pastures in the 1930s. Chrysolina hyperici and C. quadrigemina, were introduced to NZ in 1943 and 1965, respectively. Earlier host specificity testing in Australia was deemed sufficient for approval for release in NZ. A review of worldwide reports suggested that St. John's wort beetles will attack a range of Hypericum species in the field. After a series of laboratory tests conducted to simulate modern host-range-testing protocols the authors concluded that the two Chrysolina species would not have been approved for introduction to NZ under current risk assessment protocols, and that NZ would have missed out on one of its greatest biocontrol success stories. No evidence for impacts on the populations of indigenous congeners has been recorded. Better procedures are required to predict the realized host-range of an agent from the potential range in contained host-range testing.

Grosskopf G., Smith L.A. and Syrett P. (2002). Host range of Cheilosia urbana (Meigen) and Cheilosia psilophthalma (Becker) (Diptera: Syrphidae), candidates for the biological control of invasive alien hawkweeds (Hieracium spp., Asteraceae) in New Zealand. Biological Control 24: 7-19

Grosskopf G., Wilson L.M. and Littlefield J.L. (2008). Host-range investigations of potential biological control agents of alien invasive hawkweeds (Hieracium spp.) in the USA and Canada: an overview. Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, La Grande Motte, France, 22-27 April, 2007. pp552-557
Several European Hieracium species, e.g. Hieracium caespitosum Dumort. and Hieracium aurantiacum L., are noxious weeds in North America. A project for the biological control of alien invasive hawkweeds has therefore been initiated in 2000. Five European insect species investigated before their release in New Zealand and two additional gall wasps have been tested on North American test plants. The stolon-tip galling cynipid, Aulacidea subterminalis Niblett (Hym., Cynipidae) proved to be the most specific candidate attacking four Hieracium spp. in the subgenus Pilosella. The authors describe the results of their host-specificity tests.

Grundy T.P. (1989). An economic evaluation of biological control of rose-grain aphid in New Zealand. Agribusiness & Economics Research Unit, Lincoln College, Canterbury. 200 pp.

Gurney W., Crowley P. and Nisbet R. (1992). Locking life-cycles onto seasons: Circle-map models of population dynamics and local adaptation. Journal of Mathematical Biology 30: 251-279.