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References

Cagnotti C., Mc Kay F. and Gandolfo D. (2007). Biology and host specificity of Plectonycha correntina Lacordaire (Chrysomelidae), a candidate for the biological control of Anredera cordifolia (Tenore) Steenis (Basellaceae). African Entomology 15: 300-309
The paper described host range testing for Plectonycha correntina Lacordaire (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a proposed biocontrol agent for the Neotropical perennial climber, Anredera cordifolia (Tenore) Steenis (Basellaceae), an environmental weed in Africa and Australasia. Larvae and adults feed on the leaves. The host range was evaluated by no-choice larval survival tests and adult feeding and oviposition choice tests using 16 test plant species. The results indicated that the host range of P. correntina is restricted to the Basellaceae, with A. cordifolia as its primary host, and so P. correntina was considered a safe and promising biocontrol agent for Madeira vine in countries such as Australia and New Zealand where no other Basellaceae occur.

Caltagirone L.E. (1981). Landmark examples in classical biological control. Annual Review of Entomology 26: 213-232.

Caltagirone L.E. and Huffaker C.B. (1980). Benefits and risks of using predators and parasites for controlling pests. Ecological Bulletin 31: 103-109.

Cameron P., Hill R.L., Bain J., Thomas W.P. (1993). Analysis of importations for biological control of insect pests and weeds in New Zealand. Biocontrol Science and Technology 3: 387-404.

Cameron P.J. and Walker G.P. (1989). Status of introduced larval parasitoids of tomato fruitworm. Proceedings of the New Zealand Plant Protection Conference 42: 229-232

Cameron P.J. and Walker G.P. (1997). Host specificity of Cotesia rubecula and Cotesia plutellae, parasitoids of white butterfly and diamondback moth. Pp. 236-241 In: Proceedings of the 50th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, M. O'Callaghan (Ed.) NZ Plant Protection Society Inc.
Cotesia rubecula and C. plutellae were assessed as potential biological control agents for Pieris rapae and Plutella xylostella, respectively, in NZ. Host specificity was evaluated by rearing collections of Lepidoptera from natural parasitoid habitats overseas, and by laboratory testing of their host preferences for related Lepidoptera and species from brassica habitats. C. rubecula showed strong preferences for P. rapae and developed in no other species, whereas although C. plutellae demonstrated preferences for P. xylostella in oviposition rate and suitability for development, it could develop in several other Lepidoptera in the laboratory.

Cameron P.J., Hill R.L., Bain J. and Thomas W.P. (1989). A review of biological control of invertebrate pests and weeds in New Zealand 1874-1987. CAB International Wallingford, UK and DSIR, New Zealand.

Cameron P.J., Walker G.P. and Keller M.A. (1995). Introduction of Cotesia rubecula, a parasitoid of white butterfly. Proceedings of the New Zealand Plant Protection Conference 48: 345-347

Carruthers R.I. and D'Antonio C.M. (2005). Science and decision making in biological control of weeds: Benefits and risks of biological control. Biological Control 35: 181-182.

Carson R. (1963). Silent Spring. Hamish Hamilton, London.

Carson W.P., Hovick S.M., Baumert A.J., Bunker D.E. and Pendergast T.H. (2008). Evaluating the post-release efficacy of invasive plant biocontrol by insects: a comprehensive approach. Arthropod - Plant Interactions 2: 77-86
A program is proposed to evaluate the post-release phase of biocontrol programs that use insect herbivores to control invasive plant species. The authors argue that randomized release and non-release sites should be followed up to evaluate the degree of success or failure, including (1) the abundance of the biocontrol agent, (2) the impact of the biocontrol agent on the target plant species, (3) the potential for non-target effects (4) the response of native species and communities to a reduction in the invasive species and (5) experimental reductions of the biocontrol agent are required to eliminate the chance that the putative impact of the biocontrol agent is not confounded with other causes. Six scenarios are described in which a biocontrol agent may decrease the abundance or vigor of the target plant species but not lead to successful control where native communities re-establish.

Carvalheiro L.G., Buckley Y.M., Ventim R. and Memmott J. (2008). Assessing indirect impacts of biological control agents on native biodiversity: a community-level approach. Pp. 83-86 In: Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, (Ed.) La Grande Motte, France, 22-27 April, 2007.
Apparent competition (competition due to shared natural enemies) has been neglected when considering possible impacts of biological control agents because of the difficulty in assessing and predicting indirect effects. In this paper the authors outline a methodology to predict and measure non-target impacts of biological control agents due to apparent competition.

Carvalheiro L.G., Buckley Y.M., Ventim R., Fowler S.V. and Memmott J. (2008). Apparent competition can compromise the safety of highly specific biocontrol agents. Ecology Letters 11: 690-700
Using food webs, the authors demonstrate that the use of a highly host-plant specific weed biocontrol agent, recently introduced into Australia, is associated with declines of local insect communities via indirect effects, most likely apparent competition. Both species richness and abundance in insect communities (seed herbivores and their parasitoids) were negatively correlated with the abundance of the biocontrol agent, Mesoclanis polana (Diptera: Tephritidae), a seed herbivore of Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (Bitou). More investment is required in pre-release studies on the effectiveness of biocontrol agents, as well as in post-release studies assessing indirect impacts, to avoid or minimize the release of potentially damaging species.

Casas J., Swarbrick S. and Murdoch W.W. (2004). Parasitoid behaviour: predicting field from laboratory. Ecological Entomology 29: 657-665.
The basic components of Aphytis melinus's response to California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) were studied in the laboratory and validated in the field. Laboratory studies predicted foraging behaviour in the field with variable success; potential explanations for observed mismatch between laboratory and field and its possible larger implications are discussed.

Catherine G.W., Schulthess F. and Stephane D. (2010.). An association between host acceptance and virulence status of different populations of Cotesia sesamiae , a braconid larval parasitoid of lepidopteran cereal stemborers in Kenya. Biological Control 54: 100-106

Causton C.E. (2004). Predicting the field host range of an introduced predator, Rodolia cardinalis Mulsant, in the Galapagos. Pp. 195-239 In: Assessing host ranges for parasitoids and predators used for classical biological control: A guide to best practice, R. G. Van Driesche and R. Reardon (Ed.) USDA Forest Service, Morgantown, West Virginia

Chalak M., Hemerik L., van der Werf W., Ruijs A. and van Ierland E.C. (2010). On the risk of extinction of a wild plant species through spillover of a biological control agent: analysis of an ecosystem compartment model. Ecological Modelling 221: 1934-1943

Charles J.G. (1998). The settlement of fruit crop arthropod pests and their natural enemies in New Zealand: an historical guide to the future. Biocontrol News and Information 19: 47-58

Charles J.G. (2001). Introduction of a parasitoid for mealybug biocontrol: a case study under new environmental legislation. New Zealand Plant Protection 54: 37-41

Charles J.G. and Allan D.J. (2002). An ecological perspective to host-specificity testing of biocontrol agents. New Zealand Plant Protection 55: 37-41

Charles, J.G. (2011). Using parasitoids to infer a native range for the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni, in South America. Biocontrol 56: 155�161
An examination of the biogeographical origins and historical trade records provided an explanation as to why the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), considered to be an American species, is not attacked by native parasitoids in the USA, whereas it is controlled in Europe by Acerophagus maculipennis (Mercet) (Encyrtidae) described from the Canary Islands (as Pseudophycus maculipennis). The hypothesis was supported that P. viburni and A. maculipennis are co-evolved Neotropical species, and that both were transported from S. America (probably Chile) to Europe via the Canary Islands possibly as early as the sixteenth century. Invasion of P. viburni into the USA occurred later, but without natural enemies. This explains why P. viburni in the USA is not attacked by native North American parasitoids and why A. maculipennis is not known to attack any mealybugs of Palaearctic origin. The hypothesis adds confidence that well conducted classical biocontrol programmes involving these taxa pose a low environmental risk to native, non-target fauna.

Charles, J.G. and Dugdale, J.S. (2011). Non-target species selection for host-range testing of Mastrus ridens. New Zealand Entomologist 34: 45-51
This paper describes the approach taken to selecting non-target species for host-range testing of Mastrus ridens (= M. ridibundus auct.) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), a proposed biocontrol agent for codling moth. Cydia panatella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in New Zealand. An initial list of potential hosts was developed, derived from a combination of phylogenetic/taxonomic affinity to codling moth, ecological similarity to codling moth, and 'safeguard' or environmental considerations. Species selected are listed in the paper.

Charudattan R. (2005). Ecological, practical, and political inputs into selection of weed targets: What makes a good biological control target? Biological Control 35: 183-196.

Chong J.-H. and Oetting R.D. (2007). Specificity of Anagyrus sp nov nr. sinope and Leptomastix dactylopii for six mealybug species. BioControl 52: 289-308

Civeyrel L. and Simberloff D. (1996). A tale of two snails: is the cure worse than the disease? Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 1231-1252.

Clarke A.R. (1995). "Strains" and the classical biological control of insect pests. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 1777-1790
The strategy of introducing two or more populations of the same species of beneficial agent to increase the genetic diversity of that species is reviewed. From the literature literature, cases of multiple introductions of conspecific populations against insect targets were listed and the effect of subsequent introductions on the outcome of the project was recorded. The analysis suggested that introducing two or more populations of the same species is less likely to result in enhanced success than if other species of natural enemies are sought for "normal" classical biological control (historical success rate 12-16%). It was considered from a reveiw of genetic theory that there is also no theoretical support for the continued introduction of strains.

Cock M.J.W., Murphy S.T., Kairo M.T.K., Thompson .E, Murphy R.J. and Francis A.W. (2016). Trends in the classical biological control of insect pests by insects: an update of the BIOCAT database. Biocontrol. doi:DOI 10.1007/s10526-016-9726-3.

Coetzee J.A., Byrne M.J., Hill M.P. and Center T.D. (2009). Should the mirid, Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Heteroptera: Miridae), be considered for release against water hyacinth in the United States of America? Biocontrol Science & Technology 19: 103-111
Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) (Heteroptera: Miridae), damageswater hyacinth on the African continent, and was considered potentially useful in the USA where water hyacinth remains a problem. However, during host specificity trials, it developed on Pontederia cordata L. (pickerelweed), indigenous to the USA, although it did not establish on pickerelweed monocultures during South African field trials. The authors used models developed for South Africa using CLIMEX to predict whether the mirid will establish where water hyacinth and pickerelweed co-occur, but not where pickerelweed occurs in the absence of water hyacinth. The models suggest that the mirid's distribution will be limited by cold winter temperatures and insufficient thermal accumulation to the southern states of the USA, within the main distribution of water hyacinth. Itv was concluded that the benefits outweigh the minimal risk of damage to pickerelweed.

Coombs M. (2003). Post-release evaluation of Trichopoda giacomellii (Diptera: Tachinidae) for efficacy and non-target effects. Pp. 399-406 In: Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods, Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002, R. G. Van Driesche (Ed.) United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington

Cory J.S. and Myers J.H. (2000). Direct and indirect ecological effects of biological control. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 137-139.
The identification of potential impacts by risk and benefit analysis, host specificity testing, the impacts of biopesticides and the evolutionary stability of host range are discussed.

Couch K.M., Cresswell A.S., Barratt B.I.P. and Evans A.A. (1997). Implications of host weevil circadian activity for parasitism by Microctonus aethiopoides (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Pp. 227-231 In: Proceedings of the 50th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, M. O'Callaghan (Ed.) New Zealand Plant Protection Society Inc.
A laboratory investigation was carried out to determine whether diurnally active non-target weevils may be more susceptible to parasitism than nocturnally active weevils, since it was thought that Microctonus aethiopoides Loan oviposits in its target host primarily during light periods.

Crawley M.J. (1989). Plant life history and the success of weed biological control projects. Pp. 17-26 In: Proceedings of the VII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, E. S. Delfosse (Ed.) Rome, Italy. Istituto Sperimentale per la Patologia Vegetale (MAF).

Cristofaro M.De Biase A. and Smith . (2013). Field release of a prospective biological control agent of weeds, Ceratapion basicorne, to evaluate potential risk to a nontarget crop. Biological Control 64: 305-314.

Cullen J.M. (1989). Current problems in host-specificity screening. Pp. 27-36 In: Proceedings of the VII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, E.S. Delfosse (Ed.) CSIRO Publications, Melbourne.

Cullen J.M. (1995). Predicting effectiveness: fact or fantasy? Pp. 103-109 In: Proceedings of the VIII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, E. S. Delfosse and R. R. Scott (Ed.) Lincoln University, New Zealand, DSIR/CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia.

Cullen J.M. (1997). Biological control and impacts on non-target species. Pp. 195-201 In: Proceedings of the 50th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, M. O'Callaghan (Ed.) New Zealand Plant Protection Society Inc.
Analysis of examples of non-target impacts of weed biological control agents suggested that in most cases impacts are limited, but the potential exists for serious impacts. A risk analysis approach is advocated. Lack of relevant research data is a major problem.

Cullen J.M. and Hopkins D.C. (1982). Rearing, release and recovery of Microctonus aethiopoides Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) imported for the control of Sitona discoideus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in south eastern Australia. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 21: 279-284.
The braconid parasite Microctonus aethiopoides Loan was imported from Morocco in 1976 and released at sites in South Australia and New South Wales in 1977 and 1978 for the biological control of Sitona discoideus Gylh., a pest of lucerne and annual species of Medicago. Rearing, release and recovery methods are described, including techniques necessary to overcome the problems posed by aestivation of the host. The parasite has become established at several sites, and is a promising control agent with a high searching capacity and rapid rate of increase relative to its host.