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References

FAO (1996). Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents. Food and Agriculture Organisation. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No 3.

Faria L. de B., Umbanhowar J. and McCann K.S. (2008). The long-term and transient implications of multiple predators in biocontrol. Theoretical Ecology 1: 45-53
The authors explore the role of multiple predators on the transient and long-term dynamic outcomes of biological control. Theory indicates that specialist predators ought to promote less stable long-term biological control than generalists, while generalists readily drive suppression of nontarget prey species. However, these results showed that the combination of specialists and generalists acted synergistically to promote safe biological control. The results also suggested that endemic generalist predators, not introduced generalist predators, may often be responsible for the suppression and elimination of nontarget species. This final result demands empirical attention.

Fauvergue X., Malausa J.-C., Giuge L. and Courchamp F. (2007). Invading parasitoids suffer no Alee effect: a manipulative field experiment. Ecology 88: 2392-2403
Populations released for biological control are similar to fortuitous invading populations and may therefore suffer from Allee effects, and since experimental manipulation of initial population size is possible, a unique opportunity to test for the occurrence of Allee effects is provided. The initial size of 45 populations of a parasitoid wasp introduced for the biological control of a phytophagous insect was measured monitored for three years. Results suggested an absence of Allee effects but clear negative density dependence instead: (1) the probability of establishment after three years was not affected by initial population size; (2) net reproductive rate was highest at low parasitoid density and high host density; (3) the sex ratio, reflecting the proportion of virgin females, did not increase at low density, suggesting that low densities did not impede matefinding; (4) the depression of host populations did not depend upon the number of parasitoids introduced.

Ferguson C.M., Barratt B.I.P. and Cresswell A.S. (1999). Field parasitism of the weed biological control agent Rhinocyllus conicus by the introduced braconid, Microctonus aethiopoides. Pp. 275 (abstract) In: Proceedings of the 52nd New Zealand Plant Protection Society Conference, M.R. O'Callaghan (Ed.) New Zealand Plant Protection Society.

Ferguson C.M., Cresswell A.S., Barratt B.I.P. and Evans A.A. (1998). Non-target parasitism of the weed biological control agent, Rhinocyllus conicus Froelich (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) by Microctonus aethiopoides Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Pp. 517-524 In: Pest Management - Future Challenges: Proceedings of the 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, M. Zalucki, R. Drew and G. White (Ed.) The Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Pest Management, Australia.

Ferguson C.M., Kean J.M., Barton D.M. and Barratt B.I.P. (2016). Ecological mechanisms for non-target parasitism by the Moroccan ecotype of Microctonus aethiopoides Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in native grassland. Biological Control 96: 28-38.
The Moroccan ecotype of the braconid parasitoid Microctonus aethiopoides was introduced into New Zealand for biological control of the lucerne pest Sitona discoideus. The parasitoid also attacks several non-target native weevil species found in pasture and also to a lesser extent in native tussock grassland. We carried out a series of laboratory and field experiments, and population modelling to investigate whether the parasitoids were established at low levels on native weevils in tussock grassland, whether S. discoideus was able to survive and support parasitoid development away from lucerne, its normal host plant, or whether parasitism was occurring as a result of spillover from agricultural environments. We found that S. discoideus was able to survive and support parasitoid development on white clover which is commonly found in native grassland. However, the levels of parasitism in weevil species in tussock grassland appeared to be constrained, at least in part, by low temperatures limiting the number of parasitoid generations possible per year and by the frequency of sub-zero temperatures that caused pupal mortality. Projected climate change might reduce this constraint and the implications of this are discussed.

Ferguson C.M., Moeed A., Barratt B.I.P., Hill R.L. and Kean J.M. (2007). BCANZ - Biological Control Agents introduced to New Zealand. http://www.b3nz.org/bcanz
This database contains information on the biological control agents that have been introduced to New Zealand to help manage weed and invertebrate pests. The database currently contains records for 720 introductions of 518 biological control agents against 126 targets (25 weeds and 101 invertebrates). This information is being constantly updated.

Ferkovich S.M. and Blumberg D. (1995). Acceptance of six atypical host species for oviposition by Microplitis croceipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Israel Journal of Entomology 29: 123-131.
Comparisons were made of the acceptance for oviposition by the endoparasitoid, Microplitis croceipes of 6 atypical lepidopteran hosts with 2 typical hosts, Helicoverpa zea and Heliothis virescens. The atypical hosts were Spodoptera frugiperda, S. exigua, Plodia interpunctella, Trichoplusia ni, Galleria mellonella and Plutella xylostella. The acceptability of the atypical hosts for parasitoid oviposition was investigated after treatment of host larvae with H. zea haemolymph, frass, and both. S. frugiperda larvae were significantly more acceptable for oviposition by parasitoid females than the other atypical hosts, when untreated. The H. zea frass plus haemolymph treatment increased the mean number of eggs laid/host across all 6 atypical species.

Fernandez G.C.J. (1992). Residual analysis and data transformation: Important tools in statistical analysis. Horticultural Science 27: 297-300.

Field R.P. and Darby S.M. (1991). Host specificity of the parasitoid, Sphecophaga vesparum (Curtis) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), a potential biological control agent of the social wasps, Vespula germanica (Fabricius) and V. vulgaris (Linnaeus) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) in Australia. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 18: 193-197
Choice, non-choice, and host location tests using Sphecophaga vesparum indicated that brood of some Australian native Polistes, Ropalidia, and Trigona species would not be at risk from releases of the parasitoid in Australia. S. vesparum was approved for release in Australia and released in metropolitan Melbourne (Victoria) in December 1989, to act as a biological control agent against Vespula species

Follett P.A., Johnson M.T. and Jones V.P. (1999). Parasitoid drift in Hawaiian pentatomids. Pp. 77-93 In: Nontarget effects of biological control introductions, P.A. Follett and J.J. Duan (Ed.) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, Massachusetts, USA.

Fornasari L., Turner C.E. and Andres L.A. (1991). Eustenopus villosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) for biological control of yellow starthistle (Asteraceae: cardueae) in north America. Environmental Entomology 20: 1187-1194.

Forno I.W., Kassulke R.C. and Harley K.L.S. (1992). Host specificity and aspects of the biology of Calligrapha pantherina (Col.:Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of Sida acuta (Malvaceae) and S. rhombifolia in Australia. Entomophaga 37: 409-417.

Fowler S.V. (2000). Trivial and political reasons for the failure of classical biocontrol of weeds: a personal view. Pp. 169-172 In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, N.R. Spencer (Ed.) Bozeman, Montana.

Fowler S.V. and Griffin D. (1995). The effect of multi-species herbivory on shoot growth in gorse Ulex europaeus. Pp. 579-584 In: Proceedings of the VIIIth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, E.S. Delfosse (Ed.) Christchurch, New Zealand

Fowler S.V., Barreto R., Dodd S., Macedo D.M., Paynter Q., Pedrosa-Macedo J.H., Pereira O.L., Peterson P., Smith L.Waipara N., Winks C.J. and Forrester G. (2013). Tradescantia fluminensis, an exotic weed affecting native forest regeneration in New Zealand: Ecological surveys, safety tests and releases of four biocontrol agents from Brazil. Biological Control 64: 323-329.

Fowler S.V., Gourlay A.H., Hill R.L. and Withers T. (2003). Safety in New Zealand weed biocontrol: a retrospective analysis of host-specificity testing and the predictability of impacts on non-target plants. Pp. 265�270 in Proceedings of the XI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Canberra, Australia, 2003, J.M. Cullen, D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. Lonsdale, L. Morin and J.K. Scott (Ed.).
A retrospective analysis showed that all weed biocontrol agents released in New Zealand were subjected to generally appropriate host-range tests, although there were several examples where significant plant species were not tested. The results have been used to focus field surveys on the most likely non-target plant species to be attacked by biocontrol agents in New Zealand. For example, Tyria jacobaeae (cinnabar moth) did feed on some Senecio species in the original host-range tests, so the occasional field attack on native New Zealand fireweeds such as S. minimus was predictable. To date, this is the only weed biocontrol agent in New Zealand (of the total of 32 established in the field since 1929) that has been recorded attacking a native non-target plant species in the field. There were two cases where test results did not predict potentially substantial non-target impacts: Bruchidius villosus (broom seed beetle) and Cydia succedana (gorse pod moth), attacking seed of nontarget, exotic Fabaceae. Limited replication and duration of tests, were among possible explanations for the failure to predict these impacts.

Fowler S.V., Syrett P. and Hill R.L. (2000). Success and safety in the biological control of environmental weeds in New Zealand. Austral Ecology 25: 553-562.
Weed biological control agents have been recorded attacking non-target plants in NZ and elsewhere, but the effects are usually minor and/or transitory. Probably only two cases, worldwide, will result in significant damage to non-target plants both of which predictable from host range testing. For NZ programmes a full/partial success rate of 83% was calculated. Costs of biocontrol programmes against some NZ weeds can be reduced by using Australian research.

Fowler, S.V., Paynter, Q., Dodd, S. and Groenteman, R. (2012). How can ecologists help practitioners minimize non-target effects in weed biocontrol? Journal of Applied Ecology 49: 307-310

Frank J.H. (1998). How risky is biological control? Comment. Ecology 79: 1829-1834.

Froud K.J. and Stevens P.S. (2004). Importation biological control of Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) by Thripobius semiluteus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in New Zealand - a case study of non-target host and environmental risk assessment. Pp. 90-102 In: Assessing host ranges for parasitoids and predators used for classical biological control: a guide to best practice, R. Van Driesche and R. Reardon (Ed.) USDA Forest Service, Morganstown, West Virginia, USA

Froud K.J. and Stevens P.S., (1998). Parasitism of Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis and two non-target thrips by Thripobius semiluteus (Hymenoptera; Eulophidae) in quarantine. Pp. 526-529 In: Pest Management - Future Challenges. Proceedings of the 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, M.P. Zalucki, R.A.I. Drew and G.G. White (Ed.) Brisbane Australia.

Frye, M.J., Lake, E.C. and Hough-Goldstein, J. (2010). Field host-specificity of the mile-a-minute weevil, Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Biological Control 55: 234-240
The authors hypothesized that Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), the biological control agent released against mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria perfoliata (Polygonaceae), would not feed or oviposit on nontarget plants in a two-phase, open field setting. Whereas prerelease studies showed feeding at low levels on 9 of the 13 plant species tested here, under open field conditions R. latipes did not feed on any nontarget plant species and dispersed from these plants. In an open field setting, where the weevil was able to use its full range of host-selection behaviors, there was no observed risk of nontarget effects for any species tested

Fuester R.W., Kenis M., Swan K.S., Kingsley P.C., L�pez-Vaamonde C. and H�rard F. (2001). Host Range of Aphantorhaphopsis samarensis (Diptera: Tachinidae), a larval parasite of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Environmental Entomology 25: 332-340.

Futuyma D.J. (1999). Potential evolution of host range in herbivorous insects. Pp. 42-53 In: Proceedings of the X International Symposium of Biological Control of Weeds, N.R. Spencer (Ed.).

Futuyma D.J. (2000). Potential evolution of host range in herbivorous insects. Pp. 42-53 In: Host-specificity testing of exotic arthropod biological control agents: the biological basis for improvement in safety, R.G. Van Driesche, T. Heard, A.S. McClay and R. Reardon (Ed.) USDA Forest Service Bulletin, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA.

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